Psychedelic Mushrooms: History, Use and Legislation

Psychedelic mushrooms, primarily species of the Psilocybe genus, have been used for millennia for their hallucinogenic effects.

However, in recent years, their therapeutic potential has attracted increasing interest in the scientific community. Renowned experts such as Dr. Roland Griffiths of Johns Hopkins University, Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris of Imperial College London, and Dr. Matthew Johnson, also of Johns Hopkins University, have been at the forefront -keeps research on psychedelics.

This research is paving the way for a new understanding of potential treatments for conditions such as depression, addictions, and other mental disorders resistant to conventional treatments.

This article explores the history, traditional uses, and ethical and legal issues surrounding these mushrooms, with particular emphasis on their potential role in the treatment of addictions and depression. We will also look at other psychedelic mushrooms, such as the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), and their use in different cultures around the world. 

1. History of Psychedelic Mushrooms

1.1. Shamanic Uses and Rituals

Psychedelic mushrooms have a long history of use in shamanic and spiritual rituals. In Central America, mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe were sacred to the Aztecs, who called them "teonanácatl", or "flesh of the gods".

These mushrooms were consumed during religious ceremonies to communicate with spirits or to receive prophetic visions. Shamans, or curanderos, used these mushrooms to diagnose illnesses, heal the sick, and enter into contact with the spirit world.

 

1.2. Use of Amanita Muscaria

Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), another psychotropic mushroom, has been used in shamanic rituals in Siberia and parts of Europe. Unlike psilocybes, fly agaric contains muscimol and ibotenic acid, which cause very different hallucinogenic effects.

Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) is a psychotropic mushroom used for centuries in shamanic rituals in Siberia and parts of Europe. Unlike psilocybes, this mushroom contains muscimol and ibotenic acid, compounds that cause very different hallucinogenic effects.

In Siberian traditions, shamans consumed fly agaric to enter a trance, communicate with spirits, and access altered states of consciousness. Controversial theories, such as those proposed by Aleister Crowley and Robert Gordon Wasson, even suggest that this mushroom could be the origin of the myth of Vedic soma, a sacred drink in ancient Indo-European cultures.

 

Medicinal Potential and Use in Microdoses

Recently, interest in fly agaric has been revived due to its potential benefits when used in microdoses. Microdoses consist of ingesting a very small quantity of muscimol, enough to benefit from its effects without causing hallucinations. Testimonials suggest that this practice could help improve mood, reduce anxiety, and even relieve some symptoms of neurological disorders. (see references below. 

Scientific studies are still needed to fully understand the effects of microdoses of fly agaric, but the first returns are promising. However, it is crucial to emphasize that this practice must be carried out with great caution and under the supervision of specialists, as poor dose management can lead to serious adverse effects.

It is also important to note that fly agaric is not edible without proper preparation. Its use requires extensive expertise, and its consumption, if not properly prepared, can pose serious health risks. Therefore, we strongly advise against its ingestion without the necessary precautions.

 

1.3. The introduction of Psychedelic Mushrooms to the West

The West discovered psychedelic mushrooms mainly thanks to ethnobotanist R. Gordon Wasson, who popularized their use after meeting Maria Sabina, a Mazatec shaman from Mexico, in 1955.

His research attracted the attention of scientists and artists, ushering in a new era of psychedelic exploration in the 1960s. Since then, psychedelic mushrooms have become the subject of numerous scientific studies aimed at understanding their effects on the brain and their therapeutic potential.

 

2. Uses and Effects of Psychedelic Mushrooms

2.1. Neurobiological Mechanisms of Action

When ingested, psilocybin is rapidly converted to psilocin, the active form that primarily acts on serotonin 5-HT2A receptors in the brain. This interaction triggers a series of changes in sensory and cognitive perception.

Psilocin appears to promote an increase in connectivity between different regions of the brain, at the same time reducing activity in the Default Mode Network (DMN), an area associated with self-consciousness and rumination.

This reduction in DMN activity is often correlated with experiences of ego dissolution, where the boundaries between the self and the outside world become blurred.

 

2.2. Neuroplasticity and Brain Repair

Studies have shown that psilocybin can stimulate neuroplasticity, which is the brain's ability to form new synaptic connections and reconfigure itself.

For example, a study published in the journal Neuron in 2019 demonstrated that psilocybin can promote dendrite growth and increase the density of neural connections, suggesting a potential for repairing brain circuits damaged by chronic mental illnesses such as depression.

 

2.3. Psychological and Spiritual Effects

The psychological effects of psilocybin can vary significantly depending on the dose, the environment, and the user's mindset, concepts often summarized by the terms "set and setting". At low doses, it can cause slight sensory distortions, an enhanced perception of colors and shapes, and increased introspection.

At higher doses, users may experience visual and auditory hallucinations, profound alteration of reality, and experiences of ego dissolution.

These experiences can be spiritual and introspective, allowing individuals to reconnect with buried emotions or broader existential concepts.

Studies have shown that these experiences can lead to lasting changes in one's perception of life, a reduction in anxiety related to death, and a feeling of oneness with the universe.

 

3. Recent Research on Psilocybes and Mental Health

3.1. Treatment of Depression

Research on the use of psilocybin for the treatment of depression resistant to conventional treatments is among the most promising. Clinical studies, including those led by Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris at Imperial College London, have shown that psilocybin, administered under medical supervision, can lead to rapid and sustained reduction of depressive symptoms in patients with major depression. .

For example, a 2021 study published in The New England Journal of Medicine compared the effectiveness of psilocybin to traditional antidepressants and found that psilocybin was as effective or more effective for some people. patients.

 

3.2. Addiction Treatment

Psilocybin also shows considerable potential in treating addictions.

Research, including that conducted by Dr. Matthew Johnson at Johns Hopkins University, has found that psilocybin can help break compulsive thought patterns associated with addiction to substances such as alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. opioids.

A 2014 study showed that 80% of participants in a nicotine addiction treatment program, which included psilocybin sessions, remained abstinent six months after treatment.

These results are particularly promising given the often low success rates of traditional treatment methods.

 

3.3. Current and Future Clinical Trials

Clinical trials on psilocybin continue to multiply around the world.

In addition to treating depression and addictions, studies are exploring its potential to treat other mental disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). .

For example, an ongoing trial at the Yale School of Medicine is examining the effectiveness of psilocybin to treat anxiety in terminally ill cancer patients, seeking to reduce existential anxiety related to death.

 

4. The “Stack” of Paul Stamets and the Synergy with the Lion's Mane

Paul Stamets, a world-renowned mycologist, proposed a protocol called the "Stamets Stack," which combines psilocybin microdosing with mushrooms such as Lion's Mane (Hericium erinaceus) and niacin (vitamin B3).

This “stack” is designed to maximize the neurogenic effects of mushrooms and improve neuronal connectivity.

Lion's Mane is a non-psychotropic mushroom known for its neuroprotective properties and its ability to stimulate the production of NGF (nerve growth factor), a protein essential for the development and survival of neurons.

By combining psilocybin with Lion's Mane, Stamets suggests that this synergy could potentially enhance neuroplasticity and promote brain healing after trauma or addiction.

Research on the Stamets Stack is still at an early stage, but initial results are promising. Ongoing studies are examining the effectiveness of this approach in improving cognitive function and brain resilience, particularly in individuals suffering from neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease.

 

 

5. Legislation and Ethics in France and Belgium

5.1. Legislation in France

In France, psilocybin has been classified as a narcotic substance since 2005, which makes its possession, production, and use illegal. Although discussions are taking place regarding the possible reintroduction of psilocybin for therapeutic purposes, current legislation remains strict.

However, voices are beginning to be raised to review these laws, particularly in light of growing scientific evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of psilocybin in treating certain mental conditions.

Organizations like the French Psychedelic Society advocate for better recognition of the therapeutic uses of psychedelic substances and for a reevaluation of current legislation.

 

5.2. Legislation in Belgium

Belgium has a similar position to France, with strict laws prohibiting the use of mushrooms containing psilocybin.

However, as in France, the debate on the medical use of psychedelic substances is starting to gain momentum, fueled by the promising results of international studies.

Research groups and health organizations, such as the Psychedelic Society Belgium, advocate for a reevaluation of current legislation, particularly for controlled uses in medical settings.

 

5.3. Legislation in Switzerland

Switzerland adopts a more flexible approach to psychedelic substances, particularly for medical research. Psilocybin is classified as a controlled substance, but it can be used in scientific and therapeutic research contexts, under strictly regulated conditions.

Swiss hospitals and clinics are approved to use psilocybin in clinical trials, exploring its potential for treating mental disorders such as treatment-resistant depression.

This makes Switzerland one of the most advanced European countries in the integration of psilocybin into the medical context.

 

5.4. Legislation in the Rest of Europe

The rest of Europe presents a varied legislative landscape when it comes to psilocybin and other psychedelics. In the Netherlands, the sale of truffles containing psilocybin is legal, although the mushrooms themselves have been banned since 2008.

This exception has allowed the country to become a center for supervised psychedelic retreats, where truffles are used legally under professional supervision.

In Germany, psilocybin is classified as a banned substance, but research is carried out under strictly regulated protocols.

In Spain, although the cultivation of mushrooms containing psilocybin is illegal, personal consumption in private contexts is tolerated, creating an ambiguous legal space.

In Eastern Europe, laws are generally stricter, with a complete ban on psilocybin in most countries. However, some states, such as the Czech Republic, take a more liberal approach to personal possession, although sale and distribution remains illegal.

 

5.4. Other examples from countries around the world:

• United States (Oregon): In November 2020, Oregon became the first US state to legalize the medicinal use of psilocybin, allowing its supervised use to treat mental conditions such as mental illness. treatment-resistant depression.
• United States (Colorado): In November 2022, Colorado legalized the medicinal use of psilocybin, joining Oregon in allowing supervised psychedelic treatments for patients suffering from mental disorders.
• Australia: In July 2023, Australia became the first country to legalize the use of psilocybin and MDMA to treat serious mental disorders, such as treatment-resistant depression and dementia. post-traumatic stress, under the supervision of licensed psychiatrists.
• Canada: Since 2020, Canada has authorized the medical use of psilocybin under special exemptions granted by Health Canada, mainly for terminally ill patients or those suffering from serious psychological disorders.
• Jamaica: Although psilocybin is not formally legalized in Jamaica, its medicinal use is widely tolerated, and the country has become a popular destination for therapeutic psychedelic retreats.
• Brazil: In Brazil, the lack of laws specifically banning psilocybin allows for implicit legalization, where psychedelic mushrooms are often used in religious and therapeutic contexts. 
• Portugal: Since the decriminalization of drugs in 2001, Portugal has allowed the use of psilocybin for medicinal purposes under medical supervision, integrating this substance into a public health approach focused on treatment rather than repression.
• Costa Rica: Although not formally legalized, the medicinal use of psilocybes is tolerated in Costa Rica, especially in retreats and therapeutic centers which attract an international clientele looking for alternative treatments.

 

5.5. Ethical Debates

The use of psychedelic mushrooms raises complex ethical questions, particularly regarding their safety, regulation, and potential impact on society.

Although recent research is promising, it is crucial to ensure that these substances are used in a safe and controlled manner to minimize the risks of psychological dependence or other adverse effects.

Another ethical aspect concerns equitable access to these treatments. If psilocybin and other psychedelics are approved for medical use, it will be essential to ensure that these therapies are accessible to everyone, not just those who can afford them or who live in jurisdictions where these substances are legalized.

 

6. Scientific and Technological Innovations

6.1. Biotechnological Advances

Progress in biotechnology now allows for the synthesis of safer or more specific versions of psilocybin, or the creation of analogues without hallucinogenic effects but with the same therapeutic benefits.

Companies such as Compass Pathways and Usona Institute are at the forefront of these developments, seeking to create psychedelic drugs that could be marketed to treat a variety of mental disorders.

 

6.2. Role of Brain Imaging

The use of advanced brain imaging techniques, such as functional MRI (fMRI), has allowed scientists to study the effect of psychedelics on the brain in real time.

These techniques show how psilocybin alters connectivity between different brain regions and reduces DMN activity, providing visual evidence of the neurobiological changes that underlie the observed psychological and therapeutic effects.

 

7. Societal and Cultural Impact

7.1. Shift in Public Perception

It is interesting to note how public perceptions around psychedelic substances have evolved. Formerly stigmatized and associated with the countercultures of the 1960s, these substances are today re-evaluated from a scientific and therapeutic angle.

Documentaries like Fantastic Fungi and books such as How to Change Your Mind by Michael Pollan have played a key role in this rehabilitation, raising awareness among the general public of the therapeutic potential of psychedelics .

 

7.2. Influence on Culture and Spirituality

The reintroduction of psychedelics into modern society is also influencing spiritual practices and healing communities. Psychedelic retreats guided by modern therapists or shamans are increasingly popular, providing safe spaces to explore altered states of consciousness.

This psychedelic renaissance can also be seen as a return to ancient spiritual practices, where psychedelics were used as sacred tools to explore the mysteries of the mind and the universe.

 

8. Risks and Controversies

8.1. Potential Risks

Although psychedelics, such as psilocybin, show promising therapeutic potential, it is crucial to recognize that they are not without risks.

One of the most frequently cited dangers is that of "bad trips", potentially negative, even terrifying experiences that can occur under the influence of these substances. These episodes can include feelings of intense fear, confusion, and despair, and can be exacerbated by a stressful environment or an unstable state of mind (the concept of "set and setting" is fundamental here). We recommend the YouTube channel "La gazette de l'abîme" on the subject, and in particular this video on the topic of bad trips.

Another important risk is the reactivation of traumatic experiences. Psychedelics can cause users to relive painful memories or buried trauma, which can be therapeutic in a controlled therapeutic setting, but potentially destabilizing without proper supervision. This can lead to panic attacks or episodes of acute anxiety.

Unlike substances like alcohol or tobacco, which have a high risk of physical dependence, psychedelics are not considered physically addictive. However, there is the potential for psychological dependence, where the user may become excessively attached to experiences or insights obtained while under the influence of these substances. 

In terms of comparative dangerousness, psychedelics are however recognized as being significantly less harmful than legal substances such as alcohol or tobacco. Alcohol is associated with a high risk of physical dependence, organ damage (such as liver disease), and risky behaviors, while tobacco is a leading cause of preventable disease worldwide. including lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases.

In contrast, psychedelics like psilocybin have a lower risk profile in terms of physical toxicity and mortality. A study published in The Lancet even ranked psilocybin among the least dangerous drugs, in terms of harm caused to the user and society.

Figure 2: Drugs ranked by their overall harm scores, showing the distinct contributions to the overall scores of harm caused to users and harm caused to others. (src: The Lancet)

However, this does not mean that psychedelics are safe. The long-term effects of their frequent use are not yet fully understood, and studies are underway to explore the possible neuropsychological consequences of their use. In addition, rare but real psychotic incidents have been documented in individuals predisposed to mental disorders, which highlights the importance of prior evaluation by a health professional.

In summary, although psychedelics can offer significant therapeutic benefits, their use must be supervised by qualified professionals in safe environments, with prior assessment of individual risks.

Self-medication without thinking about the “set and setting” is not recommended, as it considerably increases the risk of serious adverse effects.

 

8.2. Ethical Controversies

Ethical debates surrounding psychedelics include concerns about the commercialization of these substances, respect for indigenous traditions, and questions about informed consent in clinical studies.

Some experts fear that the rush to psychedelics could lead to commercial exploitation that could neglect the spiritual and cultural aspects of these substances, or even endanger the indigenous communities who have preserved this knowledge for centuries.

 

9. Long Term Perspectives

9.1. Impact on Health Systems

If psychedelics continue to demonstrate their effectiveness in treating mental disorders, they could have a significant impact on health systems by reducing the burden of chronic diseases and providing new avenues of treatment.

Healthcare costs related to mental illness are exorbitant, and the introduction of psychedelic-based therapies could potentially reduce these costs while improving patient outcomes.

 

9.2. Future Scientific Developments

Future directions in psychedelic research will likely include broader and more diverse studies, explorations of specific mechanisms of action, and developments of new psychedelic analogues.

Research will also focus on the long-term effects of psychedelic use, as well as optimizing treatment protocols to maximize benefits while minimizing risks.

 

10. Recognized Scientific References

To delve deeper into the topics covered in this article, here is a list of scientific and academic references on the basis of which we wrote this article:

1. 
   Carhart-Harris, R. L., et al. (2016). "Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility study." The Lancet Psychiatry.
2. Griffiths, R. R., et al. (2006). "Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance." Psychopharmacology.
3. Johnson, M. W., et al. (2014). "Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction." Journal of Psychopharmacology.
4. Stamets, P. (2020). Fantastic Fungi: How Mushrooms Can Heal, Shift Consciousness, and Save the Planet.
5. Pollan, M. (2018). How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science of Psychedelics Teaches Us About Consciousness, Dying, Addiction, Depression, and Transcendence.
6. Majić, T., Schmidt, T. T., & Gallinat, J. (2015). "Psychedelic drugs and the central nervous system: a clinical review of mechanisms, effects, and therapeutic potential." Journal of Neurotherapy.
7. Chambon, O. (2015). Psychedelics in Psychotherapy: A Coming Revolution? Albin Michel.
8. Suntay, T. A. (2022). Microdosing with Amanita Muscaria: Creativity, Healing, and Recovery with the Sacred Mushroom. Inner Traditions.
9. Williams, D. (2020). Fly Agaric: A Compendium of History, Pharmacology, Mythology, & Exploration. Psychedelic Press.
10. Dupuis, D. (2021). Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Ethnography of Contemporary Use. Petra Editions.