Psychedelic mushrooms, mainly species of the genus Psilocybe, have been used for millennia for their hallucinogenic effects.
However, in recent years, their therapeutic potential has sparked growing interest in the scientific community. Renowned experts such as Dr. Roland Griffiths from Johns Hopkins University, Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris from Imperial College London, and Dr. Matthew Johnson, also from Johns Hopkins University, have been at the forefront of psychedelic research.
These studies pave the way for a new understanding of potential treatments for conditions such as depression, addictions, and other mental disorders resistant to conventional treatments.
This article explores the history, traditional uses, and the ethical and legal issues surrounding these mushrooms, with a particular emphasis on their potential role in the treatment of addictions and depression. We will also examine other psychedelic mushrooms, such as the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), and their use in different cultures around the world.
1. History of Psychedelic Mushrooms
1.1. Shamanic Usages and Rituals
Psychedelic mushrooms have a long history of use in shamanic and spiritual rituals. In Central America, mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe were sacred to the Aztecs, who called them "teonanácatl," or "flesh of the gods."
These mushrooms were consumed during religious ceremonies to communicate with spirits or to receive prophetic visions. Shamans, or curanderos, used these mushrooms to diagnose illnesses, heal the sick, and make contact with the spirit world.
1.2. Use of the Amanita Muscaria
The fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), another psychoactive mushroom, has been used in shamanic rituals in Siberia and parts of Europe. Unlike psilocybin mushrooms, the fly agaric contains muscimol and ibotenic acid, which cause very different hallucinogenic effects.
The fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) is a psychoactive mushroom used for centuries in shamanic rituals in Siberia and parts of Europe. Unlike psilocybin mushrooms, this mushroom contains muscimol and ibotenic acid, compounds that cause very different hallucinogenic effects.
In Siberian traditions, shamans consumed the fly agaric to enter trance, communicate with spirits, and access altered states of consciousness. Controversial theories, such as those proposed by Aleister Crowley and Robert Gordon Wasson, even suggest that this mushroom could be the origin of the myth of the Vedic soma, a sacred drink in ancient Indo-European cultures.
Medicinal Potential and Use in Microdoses
Recently, interest in the fly agaric has been revived due to its potential benefits when used in microdoses. Microdosing involves ingesting a very small amount of muscimol, enough to benefit from its effects without causing hallucinations. Testimonials suggest that this practice could help improve mood, reduce anxiety, and even relieve certain symptoms of neurological disorders. (see references below).
However, it is crucial to emphasize that this practice must be carried out with great caution and under the supervision of specialists, as improper dose management can lead to serious adverse effects.
It is also important to note that the fly agaric is not edible without proper preparation. Its use requires extensive expertise, and its consumption, if not properly prepared, can pose serious health risks. Therefore, we strongly advise against its ingestion without the necessary precautions.
1.3. The Introduction of Psychedelic Mushrooms in the West
The West discovered psychedelic mushrooms mainly thanks to the ethnobotanist R. Gordon Wasson, who popularized their use after his encounter with Maria Sabina, a Mazatec shaman from Mexico, in 1955.
His research attracted the attention of scientists and artists, inaugurating a new era of psychedelic exploration in the 1960s. Since then, psychedelic mushrooms have become the subject of numerous scientific studies aimed at understanding their effects on the brain and their therapeutic potential.
2. Uses and Effects of Psychedelic Mushrooms
2.1. Neurobiological Mechanisms of Action
When ingested, psilocybin is rapidly converted into psilocin, the active form that primarily acts on the 5-HT2A serotonin receptors in the brain. This interaction triggers a series of changes in sensory and cognitive perception.
Psilocin appears to promote an increase in connectivity between different regions of the brain, while simultaneously reducing activity in the Default Mode Network (DMN), an area associated with self-awareness and rumination.
This reduction in DMN activity is often correlated with experiences of ego dissolution, where the boundaries between self and the external world become blurred.
2.2. Neuroplasticity and Brain Repair
Studies have shown that psilocybin can stimulate neuroplasticity, that is, the brain's ability to form new synaptic connections and to reconfigure itself.
For example, a study published in the journal Neuron in 2019 demonstrated that psilocybin can promote dendrite growth and increase the density of neuronal connections, suggesting potential for repairing brain circuits damaged by chronic mental illnesses such as depression.
2.3. Psychological and Spiritual Effects
The psychological effects of psilocybin can vary considerably depending on the dose, the environment, and the user's state of mind, concepts often summarized by the terms "set and setting". At low doses, it can cause slight sensory distortions, increased perception of colors and shapes, and enhanced introspection.
At higher doses, users may experience visual and auditory hallucinations, a profound alteration of reality, and experiences of ego dissolution.
These experiences can be spiritual and introspective, allowing individuals to reconnect with buried emotions or broader existential concepts.
Studies have shown that these experiences can lead to lasting changes in the perception of life, a reduction in death-related anxiety, and a feeling of unity with the universe.
3. Recent Research on Psilocybes and Mental Health
3.1. Treatment of Depression
Research on the use of psilocybin for the treatment of depression resistant to conventional treatments is among the most promising. Clinical studies, notably those conducted by Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris at Imperial College London, have shown that psilocybin, administered under medical supervision, can lead to a rapid and sustained reduction in depressive symptoms in patients suffering from major depression.
For example, a study published in 2021 in The New England Journal of Medicine compared the effectiveness of psilocybin to that of traditional antidepressants and found that psilocybin was as effective, if not more so, for some patients.
3.2. Dependency Processing
Psilocybin also shows considerable potential in the treatment of addictions.
Research, including that conducted by Dr. Matthew Johnson at Johns Hopkins University, has revealed that psilocybin can help break the compulsive thought patterns associated with addiction to substances such as alcohol, tobacco, and opioids.
A 2014 study showed that 80% of participants in a nicotine addiction treatment program, which includes psilocybin sessions, remained abstinent six months after the treatment.
These results are particularly promising given the often low success rates of traditional treatment methods.
3.3. Ongoing and Future Clinical Trials
Clinical trials on psilocybin continue to multiply around the world.
In addition to treating depression and addictions, studies are exploring its potential to treat other mental disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD).
For example, an ongoing trial at the Yale School of Medicine is examining the effectiveness of psilocybin in treating anxiety in patients with terminal cancer, aiming to reduce the existential distress related to death.
4. Paul Stamets' "Stack" and the Synergy with Lion's Mane
Paul Stamets, a world-renowned mycologist, proposed a protocol called the "Stamets Stack," which combines microdosing psilocybin with mushrooms such as Lion's Mane (Hericium erinaceus) and niacin (vitamin B3).
This "stack" is designed to maximize the neurogenic effects of mushrooms and improve neuronal connectivity.
Lion's Mane is a non-psychoactive mushroom known for its neuroprotective properties and its ability to stimulate the production of NGF (nerve growth factor), a protein essential for the development and survival of neurons.
By combining psilocybin with Lion's Mane, Stamets suggests that this synergy could potentially enhance neuroplasticity and promote brain healing after trauma or addiction.
Research on the "Stamets Stack" is still in its preliminary stages, but the initial results are promising. Ongoing studies are examining the effectiveness of this approach in improving cognitive function and brain resilience, particularly in individuals suffering from neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.
5. Legislation and Ethics in France and Belgium
5.1. Legislation in France
In France, psilocybin has been classified as a narcotic substance since 2005, making its possession, production, and use illegal. Although discussions are taking place regarding the possible reintroduction of psilocybin for therapeutic purposes, the current legislation remains strict.
However, voices are beginning to rise to review these legislations, particularly in light of the growing scientific evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of psilocybin in treating certain mental conditions.
Organizations like the Société Psychédélique Française advocate for better recognition of the therapeutic uses of psychedelic substances and for a reevaluation of current legislation.
5.2. Legislation in Belgium
Belgium has a position similar to that of France, with strict laws prohibiting the use of mushrooms containing psilocybin.
However, as in France, the debate on the medical use of psychedelic substances is beginning to gain momentum, fueled by the promising results of international studies.
Research groups and health organizations, such as the Psychedelic Society Belgium, advocate for a reassessment of current legislation, particularly for controlled uses in medical settings.
5.3. Legislation in Switzerland
Switzerland adopts a more flexible approach to psychedelic substances, particularly for medical research. Psilocybin is classified as a controlled substance, but it can be used in scientific and therapeutic research contexts under strictly regulated conditions.
Swiss hospitals and clinics are authorized to use psilocybin in clinical trials, exploring its potential for the treatment of mental disorders such as treatment-resistant depression.
This makes Switzerland one of the most advanced European countries in the integration of psilocybin within the medical framework.
5.4. Legislation in the Rest of Europe
The rest of Europe presents a varied legislative landscape regarding psilocybin and other psychedelics. In the Netherlands, the sale of truffles containing psilocybin is legal, although the mushrooms themselves have been banned since 2008.
This exception has allowed the country to become a center for supervised psychedelic retreats, where truffles are used legally under professional supervision.
In Germany, psilocybin is classified as a prohibited substance, but research is conducted under strictly regulated protocols.
In Spain, although the cultivation of mushrooms containing psilocybin is illegal, personal consumption in private settings is tolerated, creating an ambiguous legal space.
In Eastern Europe, laws are generally stricter, with a total ban on psilocybin in most countries. However, some states, such as the Czech Republic, adopt a more liberal approach to personal possession, although sale and distribution remain illegal.
5.4. Other examples of countries in the world:
- United States (Oregon): In November 2020, Oregon became the first U.S. state to legalize the medicinal use of psilocybin, allowing its use under supervision to treat mental conditions such as treatment-resistant depression.
- United States (Colorado): In November 2022, Colorado legalized the medicinal use of psilocybin, joining Oregon in allowing supervised psychedelic treatments for patients suffering from mental disorders.
- Australia: In July 2023, Australia became the first country to legalize the use of psilocybin and MDMA to treat severe mental disorders, such as treatment-resistant depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, under the supervision of licensed psychiatrists.
- Canada : Since 2020, Canada has authorized the medical use of psilocybin under special exemptions granted by Health Canada, mainly for terminally ill patients or those suffering from severe psychological disorders.
- Jamaica: Although psilocybin is not formally legalized in Jamaica, its medicinal use is widely tolerated, and the country has become a popular destination for therapeutic psychedelic retreats.
- Brazil: In Brazil, the absence of laws specifically prohibiting psilocybin allows for implicit legalization, where psychedelic mushrooms are often used in religious and therapeutic contexts.
- Portugal: Since the decriminalization of drugs in 2001, Portugal allows the use of psilocybin for medicinal purposes under medical supervision, integrating this substance into a public health approach focused on treatment rather than repression.
- Costa Rica: Although not formally legalized, the medicinal use of psilocybes is tolerated in Costa Rica, especially in retreats and therapeutic centers that attract an international clientele seeking alternative treatments.
5.5. Ethical Debates
The use of psychedelic mushrooms raises complex ethical questions, particularly regarding their safety, regulation, and potential impact on society.
Although recent research is promising, it is crucial to ensure that these substances are used in a safe and controlled manner to minimize the risks of psychological dependence or other adverse effects.
Another ethical aspect concerns equitable access to these treatments. If psilocybin and other psychedelics are approved for medical use, it will be essential to ensure that these therapies are accessible to everyone, not just those who can afford them or who live in jurisdictions where these substances are legalized.
6. Scientific and Technological Innovations
6.1. Biotechnological Advances
Advances in biotechnology now allow the synthesis of safer or more specific versions of psilocybin, or the creation of analogues without hallucinogenic effects but with the same therapeutic benefits.
Companies such as Compass Pathways and Usona Institute are at the forefront of these developments, seeking to create psychedelic drugs that could be marketed to treat a variety of mental disorders.
6.2. Role of Brain Imaging
The use of advanced brain imaging techniques, such as functional MRI (fMRI), has allowed scientists to study the effect of psychedelics on the brain in real time.
These techniques show how psilocybin alters connectivity between different regions of the brain and reduces DMN activity, providing visual evidence of the neurobiological changes underlying the observed psychological and therapeutic effects.
7. Societal and Cultural Impact
7.1. Change in Public Perception
It is interesting to note how public perceptions around psychedelic substances have evolved. Once stigmatized and associated with the countercultures of the 1960s, these substances are now being reevaluated from a scientific and therapeutic perspective.
Documentaries like Fantastic Fungi and books such as Michael Pollan's How to Change Your Mind have played a key role in this rehabilitation, raising public awareness of the therapeutic potentials of psychedelics.
7.2. Influence on Culture and Spirituality
The reintroduction of psychedelics into modern society also influences spiritual practices and healing communities. Psychedelic retreats guided by therapists or modern shamans are increasingly popular, offering safe spaces to explore altered states of consciousness.
This psychedelic renaissance can also be seen as a return to ancestral spiritual practices, where psychedelics were used as sacred tools to explore the mysteries of the mind and the universe.
8. Risks and Controversies
8.1. Potential Risks
Although psychedelics, such as psilocybin, show promising therapeutic potential, it is crucial to recognize that they are not without risks.
One of the most frequently cited dangers is that of "bad trips," potentially negative, even terrifying experiences that can occur under the influence of these substances. These episodes can include feelings of intense fear, confusion, and despair, and can be exacerbated by a stressful environment or an unstable state of mind (the concept of "set and setting" is fundamental here). Some YouTube channels address this subject, notably "La gazette de l'abîme" with in particular this video on the topic of bad trips.
Another significant risk is the reactivation of traumatic experiences. Psychedelics can cause users to relive painful memories or buried traumas, which can be therapeutic in a controlled therapeutic setting, but potentially destabilizing without proper supervision. This can lead to panic attacks or episodes of acute anxiety.
Unlike substances such as alcohol or tobacco, which present a high risk of physical dependence, psychedelics do not create physical dependence. However, there is a potential for psychological dependence, where the user may become excessively attached to the experiences or insights gained under the influence of these substances.
In terms of comparative danger, psychedelics are however recognized as being significantly less harmful than legal substances such as alcohol or tobacco. Alcohol is associated with a high risk of physical dependence, organ damage (such as liver diseases), and risky behaviors, while tobacco is one of the leading causes of preventable diseases worldwide, including lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
On the other hand, psychedelics like psilocybin have a lower risk profile in terms of physical toxicity and mortality. A study published in The Lancet even ranked psilocybin among the least dangerous drugs, in terms of harm caused to the user and society.
Figure 2: Drugs ranked by their overall harm scores, showing the distinct contributions to the overall scores of harm caused to users and harm caused to others. (source: The Lancet)
However, this does not mean that psychedelics are safe. The long-term effects of frequent use are not yet fully understood, and studies are underway to explore the possible neuropsychological consequences of their use. Additionally, rare but real psychotic incidents have been documented in individuals predisposed to mental disorders, highlighting the importance of prior evaluation by a healthcare professional.
In summary, although psychedelics can offer significant therapeutic benefits, their use must be supervised by qualified professionals in safe environments, with a prior assessment of individual risks.
Self-medication without consideration of the "set and setting" is not recommended, as it significantly increases the risks of serious adverse effects.
8.2. Ethical Controversies
The ethical debates surrounding psychedelics include concerns about the commercialization of these substances, respect for indigenous traditions, and issues regarding informed consent in clinical studies.
Some experts fear that the rush towards psychedelics could lead to commercial exploitation that might overlook the spiritual and cultural aspects of these substances, or even endanger the indigenous communities that have preserved this knowledge for centuries.
9. Long-Term Perspectives
9.1. Impact on Health Systems
If psychedelics continue to demonstrate their effectiveness in treating mental disorders, they could have a significant impact on healthcare systems by reducing the burden of chronic diseases and offering new avenues for treatment.
The healthcare costs related to mental illnesses are exorbitant, and the introduction of therapies based on psychedelics could potentially reduce these costs while improving outcomes for patients.
9.2. Future Scientific Developments
Future directions in psychedelic research will likely include larger and more diverse studies, explorations of specific mechanisms of action, and developments of new psychedelic analogues.
The research will also focus on the long-term effects of using psychedelics, as well as on optimizing therapeutic protocols to maximize benefits while minimizing risks.
10. Recognized Scientific References
To delve deeper into the topics covered in this article, here is a list of scientific and academic references on which we based this article:
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Carhart-Harris, R. L., et al. (2016). "Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility study." The Lancet Psychiatry.
- Griffiths, R. R., et al. (2006). "Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance." Psychopharmacology.
- Johnson, M. W., et al. (2014). "Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction." Journal of Psychopharmacology.
- Stamets, P. (2020). Fantastic Fungi: How Mushrooms Can Heal, Shift Consciousness, and Save the Planet.
- Pollan, M. (2018). How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science of Psychedelics Teaches Us About Consciousness, Dying, Addiction, Depression, and Transcendence.
- Majić, T., Schmidt, T. T., & Gallinat, J. (2015). "Psychedelic drugs and the central nervous system: a clinical review of mechanisms, effects, and therapeutic potential." Journal of Neurotherapy.
- Chambon, O. (2015). Psychedelics in Psychotherapy: A Revolution to Come? Albin Michel.
- Suntay, T. A. (2022). Microdosing with Amanita Muscaria: Creativity, Healing, and Recovery with the Sacred Mushroom. Inner Traditions.
- Williams, D. (2020). Fly Agaric: A Compendium of History, Pharmacology, Mythology, & Exploration. Psychedelic Press.
- Dupuis, D. (2021). Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Ethnography of a Contemporary Use. Editions Petra.
