Psychedelic Mushrooms: History, Use, and Legislation

Psychedelic mushrooms, mainly species of the genus Psilocybe, have been used for millennia for their hallucinogenic effects.

However, in recent years, their therapeutic potential has sparked growing interest in the scientific community. Renowned experts such as Dr. Roland Griffiths from Johns Hopkins University, Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris from Imperial College London, and Dr. Matthew Johnson, also from Johns Hopkins University, have been at the forefront of psychedelic research.

These studies pave the way for a new understanding of potential treatments for conditions such as depression, addictions, and other mental disorders resistant to conventional treatments.

This article explores the history, traditional uses, and ethical and legal issues surrounding these mushrooms, with a particular focus on their potential role in treating addictions and depression. We will also examine other psychedelic mushrooms, such as the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), and their use in different cultures around the world. 

1. History of Psychedelic Mushrooms

1.1. Shamanic and Ritual Uses

Psychedelic mushrooms have a long history of use in shamanic and spiritual rituals. In Central America, mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe were sacred to the Aztecs, who called them "teonanácatl," or "flesh of the gods."

These mushrooms were consumed during religious ceremonies to communicate with spirits or to receive prophetic visions. Shamans, or curanderos, used these mushrooms to diagnose illnesses, heal the sick, and contact the spirit world.

 

1.2. Use of Amanita Muscaria

The fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), another psychotropic mushroom, has been used in shamanic rituals in Siberia and parts of Europe. Unlike psilocybes, the fly agaric contains muscimol and ibotenic acid, which cause very different hallucinogenic effects.

The fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) is a psychotropic mushroom used for centuries in shamanic rituals in Siberia and parts of Europe. Unlike psilocybes, this mushroom contains muscimol and ibotenic acid, compounds that cause very different hallucinogenic effects.

In Siberian traditions, shamans consumed the fly agaric to enter trance, communicate with spirits, and access altered states of consciousness. Controversial theories, such as those proposed by Aleister Crowley and Robert Gordon Wasson, even suggest that this mushroom could be the origin of the Vedic soma myth, a sacred drink in ancient Indo-European cultures.

 

Medicinal Potential and Use in Microdoses

Recently, interest in the fly agaric has been revived due to its potential benefits when used in microdoses. Microdosing involves ingesting a very small amount of muscimol, enough to benefit from its effects without causing hallucinations. Testimonials suggest that this practice could help improve mood, reduce anxiety, and even relieve certain symptoms of neurological disorders. (see references below). 

However, it is crucial to emphasize that this practice must be carried out with great caution and under the supervision of specialists, as improper dose management can lead to serious adverse effects.

It is also important to note that the fly agaric is not edible without proper preparation. Its use requires extensive expertise, and its consumption, if not properly prepared, can pose serious health risks. Therefore, we strongly advise against ingesting it without the necessary precautions.

 

1.3. The Introduction of Psychedelic Mushrooms in the West

The West discovered psychedelic mushrooms mainly thanks to ethnobotanist R. Gordon Wasson, who popularized their use after his encounter with Maria Sabina, a Mazatec shaman from Mexico, in 1955.

His research attracted the attention of scientists and artists, inaugurating a new era of psychedelic exploration in the 1960s. Since then, psychedelic mushrooms have become the subject of numerous scientific studies aimed at understanding their effects on the brain and their therapeutic potential.

 

2. Uses and Effects of Psychedelic Mushrooms

2.1. Neurobiological Mechanisms of Action

When ingested, psilocybin is rapidly converted into psilocin, the active form that primarily acts on serotonin 5-HT2A receptors in the brain. This interaction triggers a series of changes in sensory and cognitive perception.

Psilocin appears to promote increased connectivity between different brain regions while simultaneously reducing activity in the Default Mode Network (DMN), an area associated with self-awareness and rumination.

This reduction in DMN activity is often correlated with ego dissolution experiences, where the boundaries between self and the outside world become blurred.

 

2.2. Neuroplasticity and Brain Repair

Studies have shown that psilocybin can stimulate neuroplasticity, that is, the brain’s ability to form new synaptic connections and reconfigure itself.

For example, research published in the Neuron journal in 2019 demonstrated that psilocybin can promote dendrite growth and increase the density of neuronal connections, suggesting potential for repairing brain circuits damaged by chronic mental illnesses such as depression.

 

2.3. Psychological and Spiritual Effects

The psychological effects of psilocybin can vary greatly depending on the dose, environment, and the user’s mindset, concepts often summarized by the terms "set and setting". At low doses, it can cause slight sensory distortions, increased perception of colors and shapes, and enhanced introspection.

At higher doses, users may experience visual and auditory hallucinations, profound alterations of reality, and ego dissolution experiences.

These experiences can be spiritual and introspective, allowing individuals to reconnect with buried emotions or broader existential concepts.

Studies have shown that these experiences can lead to lasting changes in life perception, a reduction in death-related anxiety, and a feeling of unity with the universe.

 

3. Recent Research on Psilocybes and Mental Health

3.1. Depression Treatment

Research on the use of psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression is among the most promising. Clinical studies, including those led by Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris at Imperial College London, have shown that psilocybin, administered under medical supervision, can lead to a rapid and sustained reduction in depressive symptoms in patients suffering from major depression.

For example, a 2021 study published in The New England Journal of Medicine compared the effectiveness of psilocybin to traditional antidepressants and found that psilocybin was as effective, if not more so, for some patients.

 

3.2. Addiction Treatment

Psilocybin also shows considerable potential in addiction treatment.

Research, including that conducted by Dr. Matthew Johnson at Johns Hopkins University, has revealed that psilocybin can help break compulsive thought patterns associated with addiction to substances such as alcohol, tobacco, and opioids.

A 2014 study showed that 80% of participants in a nicotine addiction treatment program, which included psilocybin sessions, remained abstinent six months after treatment.

These results are particularly promising given the often low success rates of traditional treatment methods.

 

3.3. Ongoing and Future Clinical Trials

Clinical trials on psilocybin continue to multiply worldwide.

In addition to treating depression and addictions, studies are exploring its potential to treat other mental disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD).

For example, an ongoing trial at Yale School of Medicine is examining the effectiveness of psilocybin to treat anxiety in terminal cancer patients, aiming to reduce existential distress related to death.

 

4. Paul Stamets' "Stack" and Synergy with Lion's Mane

Paul Stamets, a world-renowned mycologist, proposed a protocol called the "Stamets Stack," which combines microdosing psilocybin with mushrooms such as Lion's Mane (Hericium erinaceus) and niacin (vitamin B3).

This "stack" is designed to maximize the neurogenic effects of mushrooms and improve neuronal connectivity.

Lion's Mane is a non-psychoactive mushroom known for its neuroprotective properties and its ability to stimulate the production of NGF (nerve growth factor), a protein essential for the development and survival of neurons.

By combining psilocybin with Lion's Mane, Stamets suggests that this synergy could potentially enhance neuroplasticity and promote brain healing after trauma or addiction.

Research on the "Stamets Stack" is still at a preliminary stage, but early results are promising. Ongoing studies are examining the effectiveness of this approach to improve cognitive function and brain resilience, particularly in individuals suffering from neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.

 

 

5. Legislation and Ethics in France and Belgium

5.1. Legislation in France

In France, psilocybin has been classified as a narcotic substance since 2005, making its possession, production, and use illegal. Although discussions are taking place regarding the possible reintroduction of psilocybin for therapeutic purposes, current legislation remains strict.

However, voices are beginning to rise to review these legislations, particularly in light of growing scientific evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of psilocybin in treating certain mental conditions.

Organizations like the Société Psychédélique Française advocate for better recognition of the therapeutic uses of psychedelic substances and for a reassessment of current legislation.

 

5.2. Legislation in Belgium

Belgium has a position similar to that of France, with strict laws prohibiting the use of mushrooms containing psilocybin.

However, as in France, the debate on the medical use of psychedelic substances is beginning to gain momentum, fueled by promising results from international studies.

Research groups and health organizations, such as the Psychedelic Society Belgium, advocate for a reassessment of current legislation, particularly for controlled uses in medical settings.

 

5.3. Legislation in Switzerland

Switzerland adopts a more flexible approach to psychedelic substances, notably for medical research. Psilocybin is classified as a controlled substance, but it can be used in scientific and therapeutic research contexts under strictly regulated conditions.

Swiss hospitals and clinics are authorized to use psilocybin in clinical trials, exploring its potential for treating mental disorders such as treatment-resistant depression.

This makes Switzerland one of the most advanced European countries in integrating psilocybin into the medical framework.

 

5.4. Legislation in the Rest of Europe

The rest of Europe presents a varied legislative landscape regarding psilocybin and other psychedelics. In the Netherlands, the sale of truffles containing psilocybin is legal, although the mushrooms themselves have been banned since 2008.

This exception has allowed the country to become a center for supervised psychedelic retreats, where truffles are used legally under professional supervision.

In Germany, psilocybin is classified as a prohibited substance, but research is conducted under strictly regulated protocols.

In Spain, although the cultivation of mushrooms containing psilocybin is illegal, personal consumption in private settings is tolerated, creating an ambiguous legal space.

In Eastern Europe, laws are generally stricter, with a total ban on psilocybin in most countries. However, some states, like the Czech Republic, adopt a more liberal approach to personal possession, although sale and distribution remain illegal.

 

5.4. Other examples of countries around the world:

• United States (Oregon): In November 2020, Oregon became the first U.S. state to legalize the medicinal use of psilocybin, permitting its use under supervision to treat mental conditions such as treatment-resistant depression.
• United States (Colorado): In November 2022, Colorado legalized the medicinal use of psilocybin, joining Oregon in allowing supervised psychedelic treatments for patients with mental disorders.
• Australia: In July 2023, Australia became the first country to legalize the use of psilocybin and MDMA to treat severe mental disorders, such as treatment-resistant depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, under the supervision of licensed psychiatrists.
• Canada: Since 2020, Canada has authorized the medical use of psilocybin under special exemptions granted by Health Canada, mainly for terminally ill patients or those suffering from severe psychological disorders.
• Jamaica: Although psilocybin is not formally legalized in Jamaica, its medicinal use is widely tolerated, and the country has become a popular destination for therapeutic psychedelic retreats.
• Brazil: In Brazil, the absence of laws specifically prohibiting psilocybin allows for implicit legalization, where psychedelic mushrooms are often used in religious and therapeutic contexts. 
• Portugal: Since the decriminalization of drugs in 2001, Portugal allows the use of psilocybin for medicinal purposes under medical supervision, integrating this substance into a public health approach focused on treatment rather than repression.
• Costa Rica: Although not formally legalized, the medicinal use of psilocybes is tolerated in Costa Rica, especially in retreats and therapeutic centers that attract an international clientele seeking alternative treatments.

 

5.5. Ethical Debates

The use of psychedelic mushrooms raises complex ethical questions, particularly regarding their safety, regulation, and potential impact on society.

Although recent research is promising, it is crucial to ensure that these substances are used safely and in a controlled manner to minimize the risks of psychological dependence or other adverse effects.

Another ethical aspect concerns equitable access to these treatments. If psilocybin and other psychedelics are approved for medical use, it will be essential to ensure that these therapies are accessible to all, not just those who can afford them or who live in jurisdictions where these substances are legalized.

 

6. Scientific and Technological Innovations

6.1. Biotechnological Advances

Advances in biotechnology now allow the synthesis of safer or more specific versions of psilocybin, or the creation of analogues without hallucinogenic effects but with the same therapeutic benefits.

Companies such as Compass Pathways and Usona Institute are at the forefront of these developments, seeking to create psychedelic drugs that could be marketed to treat a variety of mental disorders.

 

6.2. Role of Brain Imaging

The use of advanced brain imaging techniques, such as functional MRI (fMRI), has allowed scientists to study in real time the effect of psychedelics on the brain.

These techniques show how psilocybin alters connectivity between different brain regions and reduces DMN activity, providing visual evidence of the neurobiological changes underlying the observed psychological and therapeutic effects.

 

7. Societal and Cultural Impact

7.1. Change in Public Perception

It is interesting to note how public perceptions around psychedelic substances have evolved. Once stigmatized and associated with the countercultures of the 1960s, these substances are now being reevaluated from a scientific and therapeutic perspective.

Documentaries like Fantastic Fungi and books such as How to Change Your Mind by Michael Pollan have played a key role in this rehabilitation, raising public awareness of the therapeutic potentials of psychedelics.

 

7.2. Influence on Culture and Spirituality

The reintroduction of psychedelics into modern society also influences spiritual practices and healing communities. Psychedelic retreats guided by therapists or modern shamans are increasingly popular, offering safe spaces to explore altered states of consciousness.

This psychedelic renaissance can also be seen as a return to ancestral spiritual practices, where psychedelics were used as sacred tools to explore the mysteries of the mind and the universe.

 

8. Risks and Controversies

8.1. Potential Risks

Although psychedelics, such as psilocybin, show promising therapeutic potential, it is crucial to recognize that they are not without risks.

One of the most frequently cited dangers is that of "bad trips," potentially negative, even terrifying experiences that can occur under the influence of these substances. These episodes may include feelings of intense fear, confusion, and despair, and can be exacerbated by a stressful environment or unstable mindset (the concept of "set and setting" is fundamental here). Some YouTube channels address this topic, notably "La gazette de l'abîme" with in particular this video on the subject of bad trips.

Another significant risk is the reactivation of traumatic experiences. Psychedelics can cause users to relive painful memories or buried traumas, which can be therapeutic in a controlled therapeutic setting but potentially destabilizing without proper supervision. This can lead to panic attacks or episodes of acute anxiety.

Unlike substances like alcohol or tobacco, which carry a high risk of physical dependence, psychedelics do not create physical dependence. However, there is a potential for psychological dependence, where the user may become excessively attached to the experiences or insights gained under the influence of these substances. 

In terms of comparative harm, psychedelics are however recognized as significantly less harmful than legal substances like alcohol or tobacco. Alcohol is associated with a high risk of physical dependence, organ damage (such as liver diseases), and risky behaviors, while tobacco is one of the leading causes of preventable diseases worldwide, including lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases.

In contrast, psychedelics like psilocybin have a lower risk profile in terms of physical toxicity and mortality. A study published in The Lancet even ranked psilocybin among the least dangerous drugs in terms of harm to the user and society.

Figure 2 : Drugs ranked by their overall harm scores, showing distinct contributions to overall scores from harm to users and harm to others. (src : The Lancet)

However, this does not mean that psychedelics are without risk. The long-term effects of frequent use are not yet fully understood, and studies are ongoing to explore the possible neuropsychological consequences of their use. Additionally, rare but real psychotic incidents have been documented in individuals predisposed to mental disorders, highlighting the importance of prior evaluation by a healthcare professional.

In summary, although psychedelics may offer significant therapeutic benefits, their use must be supervised by qualified professionals in safe environments, with prior assessment of individual risks.

Self-medication without consideration of the "set and setting" is discouraged, as it significantly increases the risks of serious adverse effects.

 

8.2. Ethical Controversies

Ethical debates around psychedelics include concerns about the commercialization of these substances, respect for indigenous traditions, and issues regarding informed consent in clinical studies.

Some experts fear that the rush for psychedelics may lead to commercial exploitation that could neglect the spiritual and cultural aspects of these substances, or even endanger indigenous communities who have preserved this knowledge for centuries.

 

9. Long-Term Perspectives

9.1. Impact on Health Systems

If psychedelics continue to demonstrate their effectiveness in treating mental disorders, they could have a significant impact on healthcare systems by reducing the burden of chronic diseases and offering new treatment avenues.

The costs of healthcare related to mental illnesses are exorbitant, and the introduction of therapies based on psychedelics could potentially reduce these costs while improving patient outcomes.

 

9.2. Future Scientific Developments

Future directions in psychedelic research will likely include larger and more diverse studies, explorations of specific mechanisms of action, and developments of new psychedelic analogues.

Research will also focus on the long-term effects of psychedelic use, as well as on optimizing therapeutic protocols to maximize benefits while minimizing risks.

 

10. Recognized Scientific References

To deepen the topics covered in this article, here is a list of scientific and academic references on which we based this article:

1. 
   Carhart-Harris, R. L., et al. (2016). "Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility study." The Lancet Psychiatry.
2. Griffiths, R. R., et al. (2006). "Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance." Psychopharmacology.
3. Johnson, M. W., et al. (2014). "Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction." Journal of Psychopharmacology.
4. Stamets, P. (2020). Fantastic Fungi: How Mushrooms Can Heal, Shift Consciousness, and Save the Planet.
5. Pollan, M. (2018). How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science of Psychedelics Teaches Us About Consciousness, Dying, Addiction, Depression, and Transcendence.
6. Majić, T., Schmidt, T. T., & Gallinat, J. (2015). "Psychedelic drugs and the central nervous system: a clinical review of mechanisms, effects, and therapeutic potential." Journal of Neurotherapy.
7. Chambon, O. (2015). Psychedelics in Psychotherapy: A Revolution to Come? Albin Michel.
8. Suntay, T. A. (2022). Microdosing with Amanita Muscaria: Creativity, Healing, and Recovery with the Sacred Mushroom. Inner Traditions.
9. Williams, D. (2020). Fly Agaric: A Compendium of History, Pharmacology, Mythology, & Exploration. Psychedelic Press.
10. Dupuis, D. (2021). Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Ethnography of a Contemporary Use. Editions Petra.